The British Empire: The Empire which on the sun never sets.
First British Empire:
Elizabeth I began the empire in 1578 when Humphrey Gilbert was granted a patent for the discovery and exploration of overseas territories. He sailed to West Indies with the intention of engaging in piracy and establishing a colony in North America, but the exploration was halted. In 1583, the island of Newfoundland was claimed for England but a settlement wasn't established. In 1584, Walter Raleigh established the colony of Roanoke, modern day North Carolina. However the colony failed due to lack of resources.
Hostilities with Spain ended with the Treaty of London in 1604. The British Empire now looked to other nations to take land from and create new settlements. In the early 17th century, an English settlement in North America along with smaller islands in the Caribbean, and the establishment of private companies. This provided a lucrative slave trade along with production of foreign produce and rich minerals. and When the 13 American Colonies were lost after the War of Independence, this was regarded as the first British Empire. Britain lost these colonies when they wanted to assert their independence and not financially aid Britain through taxation.
Elizabeth I began the empire in 1578 when Humphrey Gilbert was granted a patent for the discovery and exploration of overseas territories. He sailed to West Indies with the intention of engaging in piracy and establishing a colony in North America, but the exploration was halted. In 1583, the island of Newfoundland was claimed for England but a settlement wasn't established. In 1584, Walter Raleigh established the colony of Roanoke, modern day North Carolina. However the colony failed due to lack of resources.
Hostilities with Spain ended with the Treaty of London in 1604. The British Empire now looked to other nations to take land from and create new settlements. In the early 17th century, an English settlement in North America along with smaller islands in the Caribbean, and the establishment of private companies. This provided a lucrative slave trade along with production of foreign produce and rich minerals. and When the 13 American Colonies were lost after the War of Independence, this was regarded as the first British Empire. Britain lost these colonies when they wanted to assert their independence and not financially aid Britain through taxation.
Empire Establishment
The Empire found early rivals in Spain, Portugal, France, and the Netherlands in keys parts of the world. The Netherlands and England fought Portugal for control of Asia and the trade market. They created ventures which controlled India through the East India Company and Dutch East India Company. These companies tapped the spice market. When Scotland tried to build its own empire in this fashion, it failed, and this brought upon the Treaty of Union in 1701 establishing the Kingdom of Great Britain. However, these countries feuded in three Anglo-Dutch wars. Peace was given when William of Orange along with Mary ascended to the English Throne. The British overtook the Netherlands in 1720 due to the textiles trade growing. Britain battled with the French during the Seven Years' War (1756-1763) which rapidly grew the empire. The Treaty of Paris established a British Canada with New France being split between Britain and France. Florida was left to Britain by Spain and India was fully established as a British Colony.
The British Government turned to the Pacific for more land and maritime power. In 1770, Captain James Cook discovered the eastern coast of Australia, while the Western Coast was originally found by the Dutch East India Company. They however didn't colonise it leaving the British to fully reign over the new colonies of News South Wales, Western Australia, and Van Diemen's Land (Tasmania). The First Settlers arrived in 1788 and established colonies around Botany Bay, with convicts being the first settlers. These colonies became wealthy due to many resources such as wool and gold. This led to the city of Melbourne, in the then colony of Victoria, becoming the richest city in the world, and the largest city after London.
Cook also visited New Zealand and claimed the main north and south islands for George III. Trading between the Maori people and the colonists were established and by 1840, 40 Maori chiefs signed the Treaty of Waitangi, disputed by many as being New Zealand's founding document.
Britain was the one obstacle holding back the French Empire ruled by Napoleon. Napoleon's threat to invade the British homeland was a cause for worry and this left Britain to largely invest in the Royal Navy, re-establishing its maritime dominance. When France was defeated in 1815, Britain received the Ionian Islands, Malta, Mauritius, St. Lucia, and Tobago. Spain handed over Trinidad, and the Netherlands gave Guyana, and Cape Colony. Britain returned Guadeloupe, Martinique, French Guiana, and Réunion to France. Java and Suriname were given to the Netherlands. However, Britain gained control of Ceylon, modern day Sri Lanka.
The British Empire's vibrant, yet cruel slave trade was abolished through the Slave Trade Act 1807. Sierra Leone was designated as the British colony for freed slaves and was their new homeland. Slavery officially ended in 1833 through the Slavery Abolition Act. Slaves were granted emancipation after 4 to 6 years of training and working for an owner.
The Empire found early rivals in Spain, Portugal, France, and the Netherlands in keys parts of the world. The Netherlands and England fought Portugal for control of Asia and the trade market. They created ventures which controlled India through the East India Company and Dutch East India Company. These companies tapped the spice market. When Scotland tried to build its own empire in this fashion, it failed, and this brought upon the Treaty of Union in 1701 establishing the Kingdom of Great Britain. However, these countries feuded in three Anglo-Dutch wars. Peace was given when William of Orange along with Mary ascended to the English Throne. The British overtook the Netherlands in 1720 due to the textiles trade growing. Britain battled with the French during the Seven Years' War (1756-1763) which rapidly grew the empire. The Treaty of Paris established a British Canada with New France being split between Britain and France. Florida was left to Britain by Spain and India was fully established as a British Colony.
The British Government turned to the Pacific for more land and maritime power. In 1770, Captain James Cook discovered the eastern coast of Australia, while the Western Coast was originally found by the Dutch East India Company. They however didn't colonise it leaving the British to fully reign over the new colonies of News South Wales, Western Australia, and Van Diemen's Land (Tasmania). The First Settlers arrived in 1788 and established colonies around Botany Bay, with convicts being the first settlers. These colonies became wealthy due to many resources such as wool and gold. This led to the city of Melbourne, in the then colony of Victoria, becoming the richest city in the world, and the largest city after London.
Cook also visited New Zealand and claimed the main north and south islands for George III. Trading between the Maori people and the colonists were established and by 1840, 40 Maori chiefs signed the Treaty of Waitangi, disputed by many as being New Zealand's founding document.
Britain was the one obstacle holding back the French Empire ruled by Napoleon. Napoleon's threat to invade the British homeland was a cause for worry and this left Britain to largely invest in the Royal Navy, re-establishing its maritime dominance. When France was defeated in 1815, Britain received the Ionian Islands, Malta, Mauritius, St. Lucia, and Tobago. Spain handed over Trinidad, and the Netherlands gave Guyana, and Cape Colony. Britain returned Guadeloupe, Martinique, French Guiana, and Réunion to France. Java and Suriname were given to the Netherlands. However, Britain gained control of Ceylon, modern day Sri Lanka.
The British Empire's vibrant, yet cruel slave trade was abolished through the Slave Trade Act 1807. Sierra Leone was designated as the British colony for freed slaves and was their new homeland. Slavery officially ended in 1833 through the Slavery Abolition Act. Slaves were granted emancipation after 4 to 6 years of training and working for an owner.
Imperial empire and Victorian Expansion
The 19th century was regarded as the Golden Age of the British Empire. This time saw the largest expansion of the British Empire since its establishment in 1584. From 1815 till the death of Edward VII in 1910, Britain ruled 26 million squared kilometres of territory, with 400 million alone in India. Britain had no other rivals besides Russia in the East. The British implemented the Pax Britannica, a ideology that the British were the global police in charge of majority of the world's affairs.
The East India Company led to the British Empire's expansion and wealth. The company also tapped the Chinese market with opium trade. This saw large trade deals between China and Britain. When the opium was seizes at Canton in 1839, the First Opium War began and Hong Kong was confiscated by Britain until its return in 1997. The British Crown owned a lot in the company and played a pivotal role. The Government of India Act 1858 saw the establishment of the British Raj ending a large rebellion. Queen Victoria was crowned Empress of India, with a viceroy representing her. This possession was regarded as "the Jewel in the Crown" and as a source of Britain's power.
Britain and France also united against Russia in the Crimean War of 1854-1856 where the Crimean peninsula was captured by the British out of fear Russia would conquer the Mediterranean and the Middle East. In 1878 the British and Russians agreed to stay within their own spheres of influence, making this official with the Anglo-Russian Entente being signed in 1907. Russia was further weakened by the Japanese crippling their navy in 1905 during the Russo-Japanese War.
Britain occupied Egypt fully in 1882 when they wanted control of the Suez Canal which was built in 1869. This was vital in the connection of the empire with Britain. The British colonisation and settlement in many Boer areas of Africa saw the formation of many short lived republics; The Transvaal Republic and the Orange Free State. By 1902, these were fully conquered and ruled by the British after the Second Boer War. After the Berlin Conference of 1884-85, the European powers fought for control of Africa. Sudan was held by Britain through association with Egypt nationalists, and Cecil Rhode's British South Africa Company gained the territories designated as Rhodesia.
The British Government started granting some colonies dominion status. North and South Canada was unified in 1840 due to civil unrest and was then given dominion status in 1867. New Zealand was granted dominion status in 1907 while Australia was federated and given dominion status in 1901. Irish Home Rule was also a problem as many MP's saw this as a security risk to the rest of the UK. The Act of Union 1800 saw Ireland and. Britain integrated, with many Irish rebellions against unification. In 1886, after the famine, a bill supported by Prime Minister William Gladstone entered the House of Commons ensuring Irish Home Rule. It was defeated, and then again in for a second time. It wasn't till 1914 when Parliament passed the bill, however it wasn't enacted till the end of World War I, leading to the Easter Rising of 1916.
The 19th century was regarded as the Golden Age of the British Empire. This time saw the largest expansion of the British Empire since its establishment in 1584. From 1815 till the death of Edward VII in 1910, Britain ruled 26 million squared kilometres of territory, with 400 million alone in India. Britain had no other rivals besides Russia in the East. The British implemented the Pax Britannica, a ideology that the British were the global police in charge of majority of the world's affairs.
The East India Company led to the British Empire's expansion and wealth. The company also tapped the Chinese market with opium trade. This saw large trade deals between China and Britain. When the opium was seizes at Canton in 1839, the First Opium War began and Hong Kong was confiscated by Britain until its return in 1997. The British Crown owned a lot in the company and played a pivotal role. The Government of India Act 1858 saw the establishment of the British Raj ending a large rebellion. Queen Victoria was crowned Empress of India, with a viceroy representing her. This possession was regarded as "the Jewel in the Crown" and as a source of Britain's power.
Britain and France also united against Russia in the Crimean War of 1854-1856 where the Crimean peninsula was captured by the British out of fear Russia would conquer the Mediterranean and the Middle East. In 1878 the British and Russians agreed to stay within their own spheres of influence, making this official with the Anglo-Russian Entente being signed in 1907. Russia was further weakened by the Japanese crippling their navy in 1905 during the Russo-Japanese War.
Britain occupied Egypt fully in 1882 when they wanted control of the Suez Canal which was built in 1869. This was vital in the connection of the empire with Britain. The British colonisation and settlement in many Boer areas of Africa saw the formation of many short lived republics; The Transvaal Republic and the Orange Free State. By 1902, these were fully conquered and ruled by the British after the Second Boer War. After the Berlin Conference of 1884-85, the European powers fought for control of Africa. Sudan was held by Britain through association with Egypt nationalists, and Cecil Rhode's British South Africa Company gained the territories designated as Rhodesia.
The British Government started granting some colonies dominion status. North and South Canada was unified in 1840 due to civil unrest and was then given dominion status in 1867. New Zealand was granted dominion status in 1907 while Australia was federated and given dominion status in 1901. Irish Home Rule was also a problem as many MP's saw this as a security risk to the rest of the UK. The Act of Union 1800 saw Ireland and. Britain integrated, with many Irish rebellions against unification. In 1886, after the famine, a bill supported by Prime Minister William Gladstone entered the House of Commons ensuring Irish Home Rule. It was defeated, and then again in for a second time. It wasn't till 1914 when Parliament passed the bill, however it wasn't enacted till the end of World War I, leading to the Easter Rising of 1916.
World War One and growth:
Britain felt threatened by a new and powerful Germany, striving to become an equal to the British. This also feared other nations. In 1902, 1904, and 1907, Japan, France, and Russia respectively signed treaties and alliances with Britain against German supremacy around the world.
When Britain declared war on Germany in 1914 after the invasion of Belgium, most of Germany's African and Pacific territories were invaded and conquered by the British Empire. 2.5 million Dominion soldiers served along with Colonist soldiers. The Gallipoli Campaign in 1915 say the Australian's and New Zealand's greatest battles ever whilst the Canadians believed the Battle of Vimy Ridge was also important in their history.
Britain saw it reach it's peak after the Treaty of Versailles 1919 with the German and. Ottoman Empires being split up. Britain received Palestine, Transjordan, Iraq, and parts of Cameroon, Togo, and Tanganyika. They gained 13 million more subjects and 4.7 million kilometres squared more territory. Australia also gained German New Guinea - New Zealand gained Western Samoa, while Nauru was controlled by both nations and Britain, South West Africa also went to The a Union of South Africa.
Whilst the war cemented the British Empire as the world power due to the demise of the German, Ottoman, and Russian Empires. However, the cracks started to show and the empire began to decrease in size due to economic strains and the independence of Ireland.
Britain felt threatened by a new and powerful Germany, striving to become an equal to the British. This also feared other nations. In 1902, 1904, and 1907, Japan, France, and Russia respectively signed treaties and alliances with Britain against German supremacy around the world.
When Britain declared war on Germany in 1914 after the invasion of Belgium, most of Germany's African and Pacific territories were invaded and conquered by the British Empire. 2.5 million Dominion soldiers served along with Colonist soldiers. The Gallipoli Campaign in 1915 say the Australian's and New Zealand's greatest battles ever whilst the Canadians believed the Battle of Vimy Ridge was also important in their history.
Britain saw it reach it's peak after the Treaty of Versailles 1919 with the German and. Ottoman Empires being split up. Britain received Palestine, Transjordan, Iraq, and parts of Cameroon, Togo, and Tanganyika. They gained 13 million more subjects and 4.7 million kilometres squared more territory. Australia also gained German New Guinea - New Zealand gained Western Samoa, while Nauru was controlled by both nations and Britain, South West Africa also went to The a Union of South Africa.
Whilst the war cemented the British Empire as the world power due to the demise of the German, Ottoman, and Russian Empires. However, the cracks started to show and the empire began to decrease in size due to economic strains and the independence of Ireland.
Inter-war period:
This period brought upon new countries to the world stage, Japan and the United States became major naval powers. The independence movements in India and Ireland caused major rifts in the British Imperial Policy.
An Irish Assembly in Dublin formed in 1919 as pro-Irish independence group Sinn Fein won the majority of Irish seats in the Westminster Parliament. This led to the declaration of Irish independence and a guerrilla war against the British administers. The Irish Free State was formed in 1921, at the end of the Anglo-Irish War when the Anglo-Irish Treaty was signed. This new nation was a dominion equal to Australia and Canada. Northern Ireland was also formed with the northern six counties retaining its status as part of the United Kingdom. This independence led to the eventual republicanism of Ireland which officially was recognized in 1947.
India also began the fight with former London barrister Mahatmas Gandhi leading the Indian Independence Movement. He supported Indian nationalism and only used Indian goods and materials, creating his own cloth. The Indian Government Act 1919 gave India a national government yet it failed to meet public demands.
Egypt was made a protectorate when World War I began, but was given independence in 1922, although it was a British client state until 1954. British troops remained in Egypt till 1936 when the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty was signed. The British were allowed to still occupy the Suez Canal area of Egypt. Iraq gained independence in 1932 and even became a kingdom in its own right. The Palestine was a British protectorate, had been named as the Jewish homeland in the 1917 Balfour Declaration. This wasn't supported by the Arab population who revolted in 1936. The British had a pro-Arab stance during the 1930's and limited Jewish immigration, being a Jewish insurgency.
The Dominions were given the ability to have their own foreign policy after the 1923 Imperial Conference. The Balfour Declaration at the 1926 Imperial Conference stated that the Dominions were "autonomous communities within the British Empire, equal in status, in no way subordinate to one another". This was the formation of the "British Commonwealth of Nations". This ultimately led to the 1931 Statute of Westminster, giving independence to the Australian, Canadian, New Zealand, Union of South Africa, Irish Free State, and Newfoundland legislative processes. They could overturn British laws and Britain couldn't create laws for them. Newfoundland reverted to colonialism in 1933 due to financial difficulties and eventually merged with Canada. Ireland gained a new constitution in 1937, not acknowledging the monarchy, becoming a republic in all but name.
This period brought upon new countries to the world stage, Japan and the United States became major naval powers. The independence movements in India and Ireland caused major rifts in the British Imperial Policy.
An Irish Assembly in Dublin formed in 1919 as pro-Irish independence group Sinn Fein won the majority of Irish seats in the Westminster Parliament. This led to the declaration of Irish independence and a guerrilla war against the British administers. The Irish Free State was formed in 1921, at the end of the Anglo-Irish War when the Anglo-Irish Treaty was signed. This new nation was a dominion equal to Australia and Canada. Northern Ireland was also formed with the northern six counties retaining its status as part of the United Kingdom. This independence led to the eventual republicanism of Ireland which officially was recognized in 1947.
India also began the fight with former London barrister Mahatmas Gandhi leading the Indian Independence Movement. He supported Indian nationalism and only used Indian goods and materials, creating his own cloth. The Indian Government Act 1919 gave India a national government yet it failed to meet public demands.
Egypt was made a protectorate when World War I began, but was given independence in 1922, although it was a British client state until 1954. British troops remained in Egypt till 1936 when the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty was signed. The British were allowed to still occupy the Suez Canal area of Egypt. Iraq gained independence in 1932 and even became a kingdom in its own right. The Palestine was a British protectorate, had been named as the Jewish homeland in the 1917 Balfour Declaration. This wasn't supported by the Arab population who revolted in 1936. The British had a pro-Arab stance during the 1930's and limited Jewish immigration, being a Jewish insurgency.
The Dominions were given the ability to have their own foreign policy after the 1923 Imperial Conference. The Balfour Declaration at the 1926 Imperial Conference stated that the Dominions were "autonomous communities within the British Empire, equal in status, in no way subordinate to one another". This was the formation of the "British Commonwealth of Nations". This ultimately led to the 1931 Statute of Westminster, giving independence to the Australian, Canadian, New Zealand, Union of South Africa, Irish Free State, and Newfoundland legislative processes. They could overturn British laws and Britain couldn't create laws for them. Newfoundland reverted to colonialism in 1933 due to financial difficulties and eventually merged with Canada. Ireland gained a new constitution in 1937, not acknowledging the monarchy, becoming a republic in all but name.
World War Two and outcome:
Britain declared war against Nazi Germany after they invaded Poland in September 1939. This included the crown colonies, India, and the dominions committed to the war immediately. However, the Irish Free State remained neutral during the war for safety. When the Soviet Union entered in 1941, Prime Minister Winston Churchill lobbied U.S President Franklin D. Roosevelt for military aid. The Atlantic Charter included the statement "the rights of all peoples to choose the form of government under which they live" should be respected. This was ambiguous, but was used the British during the end of the British Empire.
In December 1941, Japan attacked British Malaya, Pearl Harbor, and British Hong Kong. Churchill knew the empire had a chance when the United States entered the war, but was worried that surrender and losses had weakened the empires prestige. Australia and New Zealand grew ties with the U.S through the 1951 ANZUS Pact due to the fall of Singapore and the British inability to protect the whole empire.
War in Europe ended in May 1945, while in wasn't till September in Asia till war officially ceased, The United States and Soviet Union were the major powers and Britain was left bankrupt, with insolvency averted due to a bail out of $4.33 billion from the U.S Congress. This was fully repaid in 2006. The British couldn't control the empire and it began to fall apart. In 1945, the British ruled 700 million people outside of Britain while in 1965, they only rules 5 million people outside of Britain, 3 million of which were in Hong Kong.
Britain declared war against Nazi Germany after they invaded Poland in September 1939. This included the crown colonies, India, and the dominions committed to the war immediately. However, the Irish Free State remained neutral during the war for safety. When the Soviet Union entered in 1941, Prime Minister Winston Churchill lobbied U.S President Franklin D. Roosevelt for military aid. The Atlantic Charter included the statement "the rights of all peoples to choose the form of government under which they live" should be respected. This was ambiguous, but was used the British during the end of the British Empire.
In December 1941, Japan attacked British Malaya, Pearl Harbor, and British Hong Kong. Churchill knew the empire had a chance when the United States entered the war, but was worried that surrender and losses had weakened the empires prestige. Australia and New Zealand grew ties with the U.S through the 1951 ANZUS Pact due to the fall of Singapore and the British inability to protect the whole empire.
War in Europe ended in May 1945, while in wasn't till September in Asia till war officially ceased, The United States and Soviet Union were the major powers and Britain was left bankrupt, with insolvency averted due to a bail out of $4.33 billion from the U.S Congress. This was fully repaid in 2006. The British couldn't control the empire and it began to fall apart. In 1945, the British ruled 700 million people outside of Britain while in 1965, they only rules 5 million people outside of Britain, 3 million of which were in Hong Kong.
Decline:
A pro decolonization Labour government, led by Clement Attlee saw the issues facing the empire. India was near independence, with the Indian National Congress and the Muslim League fighting various campaigns for independence. Congress favoured a unified secular India while the Muslim league wanted a separate Islamic homeland due to fear over Hindu dominance. The Attlee Government planning for a 1948 Independence. When India was on the verge of civil war, the last Viceroy, Louis Mountbatten (Earl Mountbatten of Burma) , brought independence forward to the 15th August 1947. The nations of Pakistan, East Pakistan, and India were born . This left many people divided and riots broke out due to immigration by Hindu and Muslim minorities. Sri Lanka and Burma gained independence in 1948, with Burma not joining the Commonwealth.
Britain withdrew from Palestine in 1948, giving the United Nations the problem of resolving the Jewish-Arab divide in the country. The Holocaust caused mass migration, frustrating the Arab populations. Palestine became an Arab and Jewish state via partition. The Malayan Emergency also saw a rise of Communism with guerrillas fighting for Communism. The British valued the rubber and tin in Malaya and wanted to retake the colony. The crisis lasted from 1948 until 1960, yet Britain granted a Malayan Federation independence in 1957, with 11 states plus Singapore, Sarawak, and North Borneo forming Malaysia. Singapore left the union due to growing Chinese tensions. Brunei didn't join the union and was granted independence in 1984, ceasing to be a British protectorate.
The Suez Canal crisis saw a major decline in the efforts to keep the Empire together. In July 1956, Gamal Abdul Nasser nationalised the Suez Canal. Churchill, who became Prime Minister again in 1951 saw this as the key to keeping power in the Middle East. An agreement prior to this saw Sudan become independent in 1956, and the Suez Canal demilitarized. When it was nationalised, PM Anthony Eden, led an attack on Egypt with France's support, via Israel. This infuriated U.S President Dwight D. Eisenhower, who didn't back the invasion. Eisenhower was worried that this could lead to a war with the Soviet Union whosided with the Egyptians. The Eisenhower Administration warned that if the invasion occurred, the U.S would sell reserves of the British Pound, which would lead to the collapse of the currency. Britain withdrew out of humiliation and Eden resigned. This wounded the British Empire and exposed its limitations, with an MP regarding it as "Britain's Waterloo". Britain however still intervened in the Middle East, sending troops to Oman in 1957, Jordan in 1958, and Kuwait in 1961. PM Harold Macmillan's foreign policy was to stay aligned with the United States. From January 1968, until 1976, Britain rapidly withdrew troops from East of the Suez, Malaysia, Aden, Bahrain, and the Maldive Islands.
By 1968, all African colonies were granted independence, except for the self-governing Southern Rhodesia. Kenyan independence was preceded by the Mau Mau Uprising, lasting eight years, while Rhodesia faced a civil war which resulted in recognised independence of the new nation of Zimbabwe through the Lancaster House Agreement 1979.
Cyprus gained independence in 1960 due to a Greek Cypriot revolt, with Britain retaining bases of Akrotiri and Dhekelia. The Mediterranean islands of Malta and Gozo gained independence in 1964, even though they voted for integration with the United Kingdom in 1955.
The Caribbean territories began to achieve independence in 1961 and 1962. The West Indies Federation was established in 1958, and tried to create one Caribbean government, but collapsed when Barbados and Jamaica left. Barbados gained independence in 1966, with the other eastern islands achieving this status in the 1970's and 1980's. However the Turks and Caicos Islands along with Anguilla opted for British rule. This was also the same with the British Virgin Islands, Cayman Islands, and Montserrat. Guyana achieved independence in 1966. British Honduras was renamed Belize in 1973 and was granted independence in 1981. In was the last American mainland colony.
The Pacific territories acquired independence in the 1970's, beginning with Fiji in 1970 and ending with Vanuatu in 1980. Vanuatu had political problems due to French and English speaking communities and this is why independence was only given in 1980. Fiji, Tuvalu, the Solomon Islands, and Papua New Guinea became Commonwealth Realms with Elizabeth II as Head of State.
A pro decolonization Labour government, led by Clement Attlee saw the issues facing the empire. India was near independence, with the Indian National Congress and the Muslim League fighting various campaigns for independence. Congress favoured a unified secular India while the Muslim league wanted a separate Islamic homeland due to fear over Hindu dominance. The Attlee Government planning for a 1948 Independence. When India was on the verge of civil war, the last Viceroy, Louis Mountbatten (Earl Mountbatten of Burma) , brought independence forward to the 15th August 1947. The nations of Pakistan, East Pakistan, and India were born . This left many people divided and riots broke out due to immigration by Hindu and Muslim minorities. Sri Lanka and Burma gained independence in 1948, with Burma not joining the Commonwealth.
Britain withdrew from Palestine in 1948, giving the United Nations the problem of resolving the Jewish-Arab divide in the country. The Holocaust caused mass migration, frustrating the Arab populations. Palestine became an Arab and Jewish state via partition. The Malayan Emergency also saw a rise of Communism with guerrillas fighting for Communism. The British valued the rubber and tin in Malaya and wanted to retake the colony. The crisis lasted from 1948 until 1960, yet Britain granted a Malayan Federation independence in 1957, with 11 states plus Singapore, Sarawak, and North Borneo forming Malaysia. Singapore left the union due to growing Chinese tensions. Brunei didn't join the union and was granted independence in 1984, ceasing to be a British protectorate.
The Suez Canal crisis saw a major decline in the efforts to keep the Empire together. In July 1956, Gamal Abdul Nasser nationalised the Suez Canal. Churchill, who became Prime Minister again in 1951 saw this as the key to keeping power in the Middle East. An agreement prior to this saw Sudan become independent in 1956, and the Suez Canal demilitarized. When it was nationalised, PM Anthony Eden, led an attack on Egypt with France's support, via Israel. This infuriated U.S President Dwight D. Eisenhower, who didn't back the invasion. Eisenhower was worried that this could lead to a war with the Soviet Union whosided with the Egyptians. The Eisenhower Administration warned that if the invasion occurred, the U.S would sell reserves of the British Pound, which would lead to the collapse of the currency. Britain withdrew out of humiliation and Eden resigned. This wounded the British Empire and exposed its limitations, with an MP regarding it as "Britain's Waterloo". Britain however still intervened in the Middle East, sending troops to Oman in 1957, Jordan in 1958, and Kuwait in 1961. PM Harold Macmillan's foreign policy was to stay aligned with the United States. From January 1968, until 1976, Britain rapidly withdrew troops from East of the Suez, Malaysia, Aden, Bahrain, and the Maldive Islands.
By 1968, all African colonies were granted independence, except for the self-governing Southern Rhodesia. Kenyan independence was preceded by the Mau Mau Uprising, lasting eight years, while Rhodesia faced a civil war which resulted in recognised independence of the new nation of Zimbabwe through the Lancaster House Agreement 1979.
Cyprus gained independence in 1960 due to a Greek Cypriot revolt, with Britain retaining bases of Akrotiri and Dhekelia. The Mediterranean islands of Malta and Gozo gained independence in 1964, even though they voted for integration with the United Kingdom in 1955.
The Caribbean territories began to achieve independence in 1961 and 1962. The West Indies Federation was established in 1958, and tried to create one Caribbean government, but collapsed when Barbados and Jamaica left. Barbados gained independence in 1966, with the other eastern islands achieving this status in the 1970's and 1980's. However the Turks and Caicos Islands along with Anguilla opted for British rule. This was also the same with the British Virgin Islands, Cayman Islands, and Montserrat. Guyana achieved independence in 1966. British Honduras was renamed Belize in 1973 and was granted independence in 1981. In was the last American mainland colony.
The Pacific territories acquired independence in the 1970's, beginning with Fiji in 1970 and ending with Vanuatu in 1980. Vanuatu had political problems due to French and English speaking communities and this is why independence was only given in 1980. Fiji, Tuvalu, the Solomon Islands, and Papua New Guinea became Commonwealth Realms with Elizabeth II as Head of State.
1997 - End of the British Empire
The British Empire only consisted of a few islands spread out around the world. Many of these are still British territories, however they really didn't constitute an empire.
1980's tested Britain's status as a world power. In 1982 Canada severed all constitutional ties with Britain through the Canada Act 1982. This was followed in 1986 by with the Australia Act 1986 and New Zealand Act 1986.
The Falkland Islands War of 1982 tested Britain's status again with Argentina junta invading the island and seizing power of Port Stanley. The Thatcher Government fought the attack of Argentina and were successful showing that Britain still had some leverage on the world stage. Whilst this seemed like a reversing trend in Britain's status, it didn't save the empire.
Under the Treaty of Nanking, Britain had gained Hong Kong Island perpetually. However the bulk of Britain's most populous territory was made up by the 99-year-lease of the New Territories and this lease was to expire in 1997. Margaret Thatcher tried to extend the lease by 50 years, however this was rejected by China. In 1984, the Sino-British Joint Declaration declared that Hong Kong would become a special administrative region of China, and the maintainance of Hong Kong's way of life for 50 years. Prince Charles attended the handover ceremony in 1997, with it ending the empire.
The British Empire only consisted of a few islands spread out around the world. Many of these are still British territories, however they really didn't constitute an empire.
1980's tested Britain's status as a world power. In 1982 Canada severed all constitutional ties with Britain through the Canada Act 1982. This was followed in 1986 by with the Australia Act 1986 and New Zealand Act 1986.
The Falkland Islands War of 1982 tested Britain's status again with Argentina junta invading the island and seizing power of Port Stanley. The Thatcher Government fought the attack of Argentina and were successful showing that Britain still had some leverage on the world stage. Whilst this seemed like a reversing trend in Britain's status, it didn't save the empire.
Under the Treaty of Nanking, Britain had gained Hong Kong Island perpetually. However the bulk of Britain's most populous territory was made up by the 99-year-lease of the New Territories and this lease was to expire in 1997. Margaret Thatcher tried to extend the lease by 50 years, however this was rejected by China. In 1984, the Sino-British Joint Declaration declared that Hong Kong would become a special administrative region of China, and the maintainance of Hong Kong's way of life for 50 years. Prince Charles attended the handover ceremony in 1997, with it ending the empire.